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MG-262[Z-Leu-Leu-Leu-B(OH)2]，一種硼酸肽，是一種有效的蛋白酶體抑制劑，選擇性地和可逆地抑制蛋白酶體的胰凝乳蛋白酶活性。MG-262由多肽和硼酸部分組成，起著抑制蛋白酶體的作用。據報道，MG-262能夠減少鼻粘膜和息肉成纖維細胞的細胞活力，誘導細胞生長停滯，抑制DNA復制和視網膜母細胞瘤磷酸化，增加細胞周期抑制子p21和p27的表達，通過線粒體膜電位損耗，caspase-3和聚（ADP-核糖）聚合酶的激活，誘導c-Jun的磷酸化和絲裂原活化蛋白激酶磷酸酶-1（MKP-1）的表達從而誘導細胞死亡。

定義
酶是用于生化反應的非常有效的催化劑。它們通過提供較低活化能的替代反應途徑來加快反應速度。酶作用于底物并產生產物。一些物質降低或什至停止酶的催化活性被稱為抑制劑。
發(fā)現
1965年，Umezawa H分析了微生物產生的酶抑制劑，并分離出了抑制亮肽素和抗痛藥的胰蛋白酶和木瓜蛋白酶，乳糜蛋白酶抑制的胰凝乳蛋白酶，胃蛋白酶抑制素抑制胃蛋白酶，泛磷酰胺抑制唾液酸酶，烏藤酮抑制酪氨酸羥化酶，多巴汀抑制多巴胺3-羥硫基嘧啶和多巴胺3-羥色胺酶酪氨酸羥化酶和多巴胺J3-羥化酶。最近，一種替代方法已應用于預測新的抑制劑：合理的藥物設計使用酶活性位點的三維結構來預測哪些分子可能是抑制劑1。已經開發(fā)了用于識別酶抑制劑的基于計算機的方法，例如分子力學和分子對接。
結構特征
已經確定了許多抑制劑的晶體結構。已經確定了三種與凝血酶復合的高效且選擇性的低分子量剛性肽醛醛抑制劑的晶體結構。這三種抑制劑全部在P3位置具有一個新的內酰胺部分，而對胰蛋白酶選擇性最高的兩種抑制劑在P1位置具有一個與S1特異性位點結合的胍基哌啶基。凝血酶的抑制動力學從慢到快變化，而對于胰蛋白酶，抑制的動力學在所有情況下都快。根據兩步機理2中穩(wěn)定過渡態(tài)絡合物的緩慢形成來檢驗動力學。
埃米爾•菲舍爾（Emil Fischer）在1894年提出，酶和底物都具有特定的互補幾何形狀，彼此恰好契合。這稱為“鎖和鑰匙”模型3。丹尼爾·科什蘭（Daniel Koshland）提出了誘導擬合模型，其中底物和酶是相當靈活的結構，當底物與酶4相互作用時，活性位點通過與底物的相互作用不斷重塑。
在眾多生物活性肽的成熟過程中，需要由其谷氨酰胺（或谷氨酰胺）前體形成N末端焦谷氨酸（pGlu）。游離形式并與底物和三種咪唑衍生抑制劑結合的人QC的結構揭示了類似于兩個鋅外肽酶的α/β支架，但有多個插入和缺失，特別是在活性位點區(qū)域。幾種活性位點突變酶的結構分析為針對QC相關疾病5的抑制劑的合理設計提供了結構基礎。
作用方式
酶是催化化學反應的蛋白質。酶與底物相互作用并將其轉化為產物。抑制劑的結合可以阻止底物進入酶的活性位點和/或阻止酶催化其反應。抑制劑的種類繁多，包括：非特異性，不可逆，可逆-競爭性和非競爭性?？赡嬉种苿?nbsp;以非共價相互作用（例如疏水相互作用，氫鍵和離子鍵）與酶結合。非特異性抑制方法包括最終使酶的蛋白質部分變性并因此不可逆的任何物理或化學變化。特定抑制劑 對單一酶發(fā)揮作用。大多數毒藥通過特異性抑制酶發(fā)揮作用。競爭性抑制劑是任何與底物的化學結構和分子幾何結構非常相似的化合物。抑制劑可以在活性位點與酶相互作用，但是沒有反應發(fā)生。非競爭性抑制劑是與酶相互作用但通常不在活性位點相互作用的物質。非競爭性抑制劑的凈作用是改變酶的形狀，從而改變活性位點，從而使底物不再能與酶相互作用而產生反應。非競爭性抑制劑通常是可逆的。不可逆抑制劑與酶形成牢固的共價鍵。這些抑制劑可以在活性位點附近或附近起作用。
功能
工業(yè)應用中， 酶在商業(yè)上被廣泛使用，例如在洗滌劑，食品和釀造工業(yè)中。蛋白酶用于“生物”洗衣粉中，以加速蛋白質在諸如血液和雞蛋等污漬中的分解。商業(yè)上使用酶的問題包括：它們是水溶性的，這使得它們難以回收，并且一些產物可以抑制酶的活性（反饋抑制）。
藥物分子，許多藥物分子都是酶抑制劑，藥用酶抑制劑通常以其特異性和效力為特征。高度的特異性和效力表明該藥物具有較少的副作用和較低的毒性。酶抑制劑在自然界中發(fā)現，并且也作為藥理學和生物化學的一部分進行設計和生產6。
天然毒物 通常是酶抑制劑，已進化為保護植物或動物免受天敵的侵害。這些天然毒素包括一些已知最劇毒的化合物。
神經氣體（ 例如二異丙基氟磷酸酯（DFP））通過與絲氨酸的羥基反應生成酯，從而抑制了乙酰膽堿酯酶的活性位點。
參考
1、Scapin G (2006). Structural biology and drug discovery. Curr. Pharm. Des.,      12(17):2087–2097.
2、Krishnan R, Zhang E, Hakansson K, Arni RK, Tulinsky A, Lim-Wilby MS, Levy OE, Semple JE, Brunck TK (1998). Highly selective mechanism-based thrombin inhibitors:  structures of thrombin and trypsin inhibited with rigid peptidyl aldehydes. Biochemistry, 37 (35):12094-12103.
3、Fischer E (1894). Einfluss der configuration auf die wirkung der enzyme. Ber. Dt. Chem. Ges., 27:2985–2993.
4、Koshland DE (1958). Application of a theory of enzyme specificity to protein synthesis. PNAS., 44 (2):98–104.
5、Huang KF, Liu YL, Cheng WJ, Ko TP, Wang AH (2005). Crystal structures of human glutaminyl cyclase, an enzyme responsible for protein N-terminal pyroglutamate formation. PNAS., 102(37):13117-13122.
6、Holmes CF, Maynes JT, Perreault KR, Dawson JF, James MN (2002). Molecular enzymology underlying regulation of protein phosphatase-1 by natural toxins. Curr Med Chem., 9(22):1981-1989.

Definition
Enzymes are very efficient catalysts for biochemical reactions. They speed up reactions by providing an alternative reaction pathway of lower activation energy. Enzyme acts on substrate and gives rise to a product. Some substances reduce or even stop the catalytic activities of enzymes are called inhibitors.

Discovery
In 1965, Umezawa H analysed enzyme inhibitors produced by microorganisms and isolated leupeptin and antipain inhibiting trypsin and papain, chymostatin inhibiting chymotrypsin, pepstatin inhibiting pepsin, panosialin inhibiting sialidases, oudenone inhibiting tyrosine hydroxylase, dopastin inhibiting dopamine 3-hydroxylase, aquayamycin and chrothiomycin inhibiting tyrosine hydroxylase and dopamine J3-hydroxylase . Recently, an alternative approach has been applied to predict new inhibitors: rational drug design uses the three-dimensional structure of an enzyme's active site to predict which molecules might be inhibitors 1. Computer-based methods for identifying inhibitor for an enzyme have been developed, such as molecular mechanics and molecular docking.

Structural Characteristics
The crystal structures of many inhibitors have been determined. The crystal structures of three highly potent and selective low-molecular weight rigid peptidyl aldehyde inhibitors complexed with thrombin have been determined. All the three inhibitors have a novel lactam moiety at the P3 position, while the two with greatest trypsin selectivity have a guanidinopiperidyl group at the P1 position that binds in the S1 specificity site. The kinetics of inhibition vary from slow to fast with thrombin and are fast in all cases with trypsin. The kinetics are examined in terms of the slow formation of a stable transition-state complex in a two-step mechanism 2.

Emil Fischer in 1894 suggested that both the enzyme and the substrate possess specific complementary geometric shapes that fit exactly into one another.This is known as "the lock and key" model 3. Daniel Koshland suggested induced fit model where substrate and enzymes are rather flexible structures, the active site is continually reshaped by interactions with the substrate as the substrate interacts with the enzyme 4.

N-terminal pyroglutamate (pGlu) formation from its glutaminyl (or glutamyl) precursor is required in the maturation of numerous bioactive peptides. The structure of human QC in free form and bound to a substrate and three imidazole-derived inhibitors reveals an alpha/beta scaffold akin to that of two-zinc exopeptidases but with several insertions and deletions, particularly in the active-site region. The structural analyses of several active-site-mutant enzymes provide a structural basis for the rational design of inhibitors against QC-associated disorders 5.

Mode of Action
Enzymes are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions. Enzymes interact with substrate and convert them into products. Inhibitor binding can stop a substrate from entering the enzyme's active site and/or hinder the enzyme from catalyzing its reaction. There are a variety of types of inhibitors including: nonspecific, irreversible, reversible - competitive and noncompetitive. Reversible inhibitors bind to enzymes with non-covalent interactions like hydrophobic interactions, hydrogen bonds, and ionic bonds. Non-specific methods of inhibition include any physical or chemical changes which ultimately denature the protein portion of the enzyme and are therefore irreversible. Specific Inhibitors exert their effects upon a single enzyme. Most poisons work by specific inhibition of enzymes. A competitive inhibitor is any compound which closely resembles the chemical structure and molecular geometry of the substrate. The inhibitor may interact with the enzyme at the active site, but no reaction takes place. A noncompetitive inhibitor is a substance that interacts with the enzyme, but usually not at the active site.  The net effect of a non competitive inhibitor is to change the shape of the enzyme and thus the active site, so that the substrate can no longer interact with the enzyme to give a reaction. Non competitive inhibitors are usually reversible. Irreversible Inhibitors form strong covalent bonds with an enzyme.  These inhibitors may act at, near, or remote from the active site .

Functions
Industrial application, enzymes are widely used commercially, for example in the detergent, food and brewing industries. Protease enzymes are used in 'biological' washing powders to speed up the breakdown of proteins in stains like blood and egg. Problems using enzymes commercially include: they are water soluble which makes them hard to recover and some products can inhibit the enzyme activity (feedback inhibition) .

Drug molecules, many drug molecules are enzyme inhibitors and a medicinal enzyme inhibitor is usually characterized by its specificity and its potency. A high specificity and potency suggests that a drug will have fewer side effects and less toxic. Enzyme inhibitors are found in nature and are also designed and produced as part of pharmacology and biochemistry 6.

Natural poisons are often enzyme inhibitors that have evolved to defend a plant or animal against predators. These natural toxins include some of the most poisonous compounds known.

Nerve gases such as diisopropylfluorophosphate (DFP) inhibit the active site of acetylcholine esterase by reacting with the hydroxyl group of serine to make an ester.

References

Scapin G (2006). Structural biology and drug discovery. Curr. Pharm. Des.,      12(17):2087–2097.

Krishnan R, Zhang E, Hakansson K, Arni RK, Tulinsky A, Lim-Wilby MS, Levy OE, Semple JE, Brunck TK (1998). Highly selective mechanism-based thrombin inhibitors:  structures of thrombin and trypsin inhibited with rigid peptidyl aldehydes. Biochemistry, 37 (35):12094-12103.

Fischer E (1894). Einfluss der configuration auf die wirkung der enzyme. Ber. Dt. Chem. Ges., 27:2985–2993.

Koshland DE (1958). Application of a theory of enzyme specificity to protein synthesis. PNAS., 44 (2):98–104.

Huang KF, Liu YL, Cheng WJ, Ko TP, Wang AH (2005). Crystal structures of human glutaminyl cyclase, an enzyme responsible for protein N-terminal pyroglutamate formation. PNAS., 102(37):13117-13122.

Holmes CF, Maynes JT, Perreault KR, Dawson JF, James MN (2002). Molecular enzymology underlying regulation of protein phosphatase-1 by natural toxins. Curr Med Chem., 9(22):1981-1989.